References

Alcohol consumption

• Bagnardi V, Blangiardo M, La VC, Corrao G. A meta-analysis of alcohol drinking and cancer risk 47. Br J Cancer 2001 Nov 30;85(11):1700-5.
• Corrao G, Bagnardi V, Zambon A, La VC. A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of 15 diseases. Prev Med 2004;38(5):613-9.
• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Breast Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2010 [updated 2010; cited 2015 Feb 18].

Adult weight gain

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Breast Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2010 [updated 2010; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Physical activity

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Breast Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2010 [updated 2010; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• Friedenreich CM, Cust AE. Physical activity and breast cancer risk: impact of timing, type and dose of activity and population subgroup effects. Br J Sports Med 2008 Aug;42(8):636-47.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Handbooks on Cancer Prevention, Volume 6: Weight Control and Physical Activity. Lyon: IARC Press; 2002.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Oral contraceptives

• Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53 297 women with breast cancer and 100 239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet 1996 Jun 22;347(9017):1713-27.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 91. Combined estrogen-progestogen contraceptives and combined estrogen-progestogen menopausal therapy. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2007.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100A. A review of human carcinogens. Part A: Pharmaceuticals 167. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. Report No.: 100.

Hormone Replacement Therapy

• Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy: collaborative reanalysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52,705 women with breast cancer and 108,411 women without breast cancer. Lancet 1997 Oct 11;350(9084):1047-59.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 91. Combined estrogen-progestogen contraceptives and combined estrogen-progestogen menopausal therapy. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2007.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100A. A review of human carcinogens. Part A: Pharmaceuticals 167. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. Report No.: 100.

Benign breast disease

• Schnitt SJ. Benign breast disease and breast cancer risk: morphology and beyond
• 138. Am J Surg Pathol 2003 Jun;27(6):836-41.
• Hartmann LC, Sellers TA, Frost MH, Lingle WL, Degnim AC, Ghosh K, et al. Benign breast disease and the risk of breast cancer 140. N Engl J Med 2005 Jul 21;353(3):229-37.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Genetics (personal and family)

• Lindor NM, McMaster ML, Lindor CJ, Greene MH. Concise handbook of familial cancer susceptibility syndromes - second edition. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 2008;(38):1-93.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.
• Shiovitz S, Korde LA. Genetics of Breast Cancer: A Topic in Evolution. Ann Oncol 2015. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdv022 [Epub ahead of print].
• Pharoah PD, Guilford P, Caldas C, International Gastric Cancer Linkage C. Incidence of gastric cancer and breast cancer in CDH1 (E-cadherin) mutation carriers from hereditary diffuse gastric cancer families. Gastroenterology 2001; 121: 1348–1353.

Family history (biological mother/ sister)

• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.
• Weber W, Estoppey J, Stoll H. Familial cancer diagnosis. Anticancer Res 2001 Sep;21(5):3631-5.
• Lindor NM, McMaster ML, Lindor CJ, Greene MH. Concise handbook of familial cancer susceptibility syndromes - second edition. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 2008;(38):1-93.
• Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Familial breast cancer: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 52 epidemiological studies including 58,209 women with breast cancer and 101,986 women without the disease. Lancet 2001 Oct 27;358(9291):1389-99.

Ashkenazi Jewish descent

• Lindor NM, McMaster ML, Lindor CJ, Greene MH. Concise handbook of familial cancer susceptibility syndromes - second edition 20. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 2008;(38):1-93.

Menstrual period (age at menarche)

• Reeves GK, Pirie K, Green J, Bull D, Beral V. Reproductive factors and specific histological types of breast cancer: prospective study and meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 2009 Feb 10;100(3):538-44.
• Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Menarche, menopause, and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis, including 118 964 women with breast cancer from 117 epidemiological studies. Lancet Oncol 2012 Nov;13(11):1141-51.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Menopause (age at menopause)

• Reeves GK, Pirie K, Green J, Bull D, Beral V. Reproductive factors and specific histological types of breast cancer: prospective study and meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 2009 Feb 10;100(3):538-44.
• Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Menarche, menopause, and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis, including 118 964 women with breast cancer from 117 epidemiological studies. Lancet Oncol 2012 Nov;13(11):1141-51.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Number of births

• Reeves GK, Pirie K, Green J, Bull D, Beral V. Reproductive factors and specific histological types of breast cancer: prospective study and meta-analysis 3. Br J Cancer 2009 Feb 10;100(3):538-44.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Age at first birth

• Reeves GK, Pirie K, Green J, Bull D, Beral V. Reproductive factors and specific histological types of breast cancer: prospective study and meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 2009 Feb 10;100(3):538-44.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Breastfeeding

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Breast Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2010 [updated 2010; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• World Cancer Research Fund/ American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective 70. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007.
• Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and breastfeeding: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 47 epidemiological studies in 30 countries, including 50302 women with breast cancer and 96973 women without the disease. Lancet 2002 Jul 20;360(9328):187-95.

Chest radiation

• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 75. Ionizing radiation, part 1: X- and gamma-radiation, and neutrons 55. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2000.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100D. A review of human carcinogens. Part D: Radiation. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.

Tamoxifen and Raloxifene

• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100A. A review of human carcinogens. Part A: Pharmaceuticals 167. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. Report No.: 100.
• Moyer VA, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Medications for risk reduction of primary breast cancer in women: U.S. preventive services task force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2013 Nov 19;159(10):698-708.
• Nelson HD, Smith ME, Griffin JC, Fu R. Use of medications to reduce risk for primary breast cancer: a systematic review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2013 Apr 16;158(8):604-14.

Height

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Breast Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2010 [updated 2010; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Birth weight

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Breast Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2010 [updated 2010; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• World Cancer Research Fund/ American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective 70. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007.

Multivitamins

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Breast Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2010 [updated 2010; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• Boffetta P, Hashibe M. Alcohol and cancer. Lancet Oncol 2006 Feb;7(2):149-56.
• Vollset SE, Clarke R, Lewington S, Ebbing M, Halsey J, Lonn E, et al. Effects of folic acid supplementation on overall and site-specific cancer incidence during the randomised trials: meta-analyses of data on 50,000 individuals. Lancet 2013 Mar 23;381(9871):1029-36.

Mammogram/Breast cancer screening

• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.
• Cancer Care Ontario. Ontario Breast Screening Program 2011 Report. Toronto, Canada, 2013.
• The Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care. Recommendations on screening for breast cancer in average-risk women aged 40–74 Years. CMAJ 2011 Nov 22;183(17):1991–2001.
• Warner E, Messersmith H, Causer P, Eisen A, Shumak R, Plewes D. Magnetic resonance imaging screening of women at high risk for breast cancer. Toronto (ON): Cancer Care Ontario; 2012 Aug 31. Program in Evidence-Based Care Evidence-Based Guideline No.: 15-11 Version 2.

Pap test

• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.
• Murphy J, Kennedy E, Dunn S, Fung Kee Fung M, Gzik D, McLachlin CM, et al. Cervical Screening. Toronto (ON): Cancer Care Ontario; 2011 Oct 5. Program in Evidence-based Care Evidence-based Series No.: 15-9.

HPV Vaccine

• Lu B, Kumar A, Castellsagué X, Giuliano AR. Efficacy and safety of prophylactic vaccines against cervical HPV infection and diseases among women: a systematic review & meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis 2011 Jan 12;11:13.
• National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI). Update on human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines. Canada Communicable Disease Report. 2012;38(ACS-1):1-62.

Smoking

• Gandini S, Botteri E, Iodice S, Boniol M, Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P, et al. Tobacco smoking and cancer: a meta-analysis. Int J Cancer 2008;122(1):155-64.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100E. A review of human carcinogens. Part E: Personal habits and indoor combustions. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.

Sexual partners

• International Collaboration of Epidemiological Studies of Cervical Cancer. Cervical carcinoma and sexual behavior: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 15,461 women with cervical carcinoma and 29,164 women without cervical carcinoma from 21 epidemiological studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009 Apr;18(4):1060-9.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Age at first sexual activity

• International Collaboration of Epidemiological Studies of Cervical Cancer. Cervical carcinoma and sexual behavior: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 15,461 women with cervical carcinoma and 29,164 women without cervical carcinoma from 21 epidemiological studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009 Apr;18(4):1060-9.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Birth control (condoms or diaphragms)

• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Children/Parity

• International Collaboration of Epidemiological Studies of Cervical Cancer. Cervical carcinoma and reproductive factors: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 16,563 women with cervical carcinoma and 33,542 women without cervical carcinoma from 25 epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer 2006;119(5):1108-24.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Sexually Transmitted Infections

• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100B. A review of human carcinogens. Part B: Biological agents. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.
• Grulich AE, van Leeuwen MT, Falster MO, Vajdic CM. Incidence of cancers in people with HIV/AIDS compared with immunosuppressed transplant recipients: a meta-analysis. Lancet 2007 Jul 7;370(9581):59-67.

Red and processed meat

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2011. [Updated 2011; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• Chan DS, Lau R, Aune D, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, et al. Red and processed meat and colorectal cancer incidence: meta-analysis of prospective studies. PLoS One 2011;6(6):e20456.
• World Cancer Research Fund/ American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007.

Dietary fibre

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2011. [Updated 2011; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• World Cancer Research Fund/ American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007.

Milk products and Calcium

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2011. [Updated 2011; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• World Cancer Research Fund/ American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007.

Vitamin D

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2011. [Updated 2011; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• World Cancer Research Fund/ American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007.

Multivitamins

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2011. [Updated 2011; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.
• Kennedy DA, Stern SJ, Moretti M, Matok I, Sarkar M, Nickel C, et al. Folate intake and the risk of colorectal cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol 2011 Feb;35(1):2-10.
• Kim DH, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, Yaun SS, Colditz GA, Freudenheim JL, et al. Pooled analyses of 13 prospective cohort studies on folate intake and colon cancer. Cancer Causes Control 2010 Nov;21(11):1919-30.
• Vollset SE, Clarke R, Lewington S, Ebbing M, Halsey J, Lonn E, et al. Effects of folic acid supplementation on overall and site-specific cancer incidence during the randomised trials: meta-analyses of data on 50,000 individuals. Lancet 2013 Mar 23;381(9871):1029-36.

Alcohol consumption

• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100E. A review of human carcinogens. Part E: Personal habits and indoor combustions. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.
• Fedirko V, Tramacere I, Bagnardi V, Rota M, Scotti L, Islami F, et al. Alcohol drinking and colorectal cancer risk: an overall and dose-response meta-analysis of published studies. Ann Oncol 2011;22(9):1958-72.
• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2011. [Updated 2011; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• Bagnardi V, Blangiardo M, La VC, Corrao G. A meta-analysis of alcohol drinking and cancer risk 47. Br J Cancer 2001 Nov 30;85(11):1700-5.
• Corrao G, Bagnardi V, Zambon A, La VC. A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of 15 diseases. Prev Med 2004;38(5):613-9.

Smoking

• Botteri E, Iodice S, Bagnardi V, Raimondi S, Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P. Smoking and colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis 25. JAMA : the journal of the American Medical Association 2008 Dec 17;300(23):2765-78.
• Tsoi KK, Pau CY, Wu WK, Chan FK, Griffiths S, Sung JJ. Cigarette smoking and the risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies 22. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009 Jun;7(6):682-8.
• Liang PS, Chen TY, Giovannucci E. Cigarette smoking and colorectal cancer incidence and mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis 23. Int J Cancer 2009 May 15;124(10):2406-15.
• Huxley RR, Ansary-Moghaddam A, Clifton P, Czernichow S, Parr CL, Woodward M. The impact of dietary and lifestyle risk factors on risk of colorectal cancer: a quantitative overview of the epidemiological evidence 11. Int J Cancer 2009 Jul 1;125(1):171-80.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100E. A review of human carcinogens. Part E: Personal habits and indoor combustions. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.

Physical activity

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2011. [Updated 2011; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• World Cancer Research Fund/ American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007.
• Huxley RR, Ansary-Moghaddam A, Clifton P, Czernichow S, Parr CL, Woodward M. The impact of dietary and lifestyle risk factors on risk of colorectal cancer: a quantitative overview of the epidemiological evidence. Int J Cancer 2009 Jul 1;125(1):171-80.
• Wolin KY, Yan Y, Colditz GA, Lee IM. Physical activity and colon cancer prevention: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 2009;100(4):611-6.
• Harriss DJ, Atkinson G, Batterham A, George K, Cable NT, Reilly T, et al. Lifestyle factors and colorectal cancer risk (2): a systematic review and meta-analysis of associations with leisure-time physical activity. Colorectal Dis 2009;11(7):689-701.

Weight/Body Mass Index

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2011. [Updated 2011; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• World Cancer Research Fund/ American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Aspirin

• Bosetti C, Rosato V, Gallus S, Cuzick J, La VC. Aspirin and cancer risk: a quantitative review to 2011. Ann Oncol 2012;23(6):1403-15.
• Rothwell PM, Wilson M, Elwin CE, Norrving B, Algra A, Warlow CP, et al. Long-term effect of aspirin on colorectal cancer incidence and mortality: 20-year follow-up of five randomised trials. Lancet 2010;376(9754):1741-50.
• Algra AM, Rothwell PM. Effects of regular aspirin on long-term cancer incidence and metastasis: a systematic comparison of evidence from observational studies versus randomized trials. Lancet Oncol 2011; 12(5):518–27.

Oral contraceptives

• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100A. A review of human carcinogens. Part A: Pharmaceuticals 167. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. Report No.: 100.
• Gierisch JM, Coeytaux RR, Urrutia RP, Havrilesky LJ, Moorman PG, Lowery WJ, et al. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast, cervical, colorectal, and endometrial cancers: a systematic review. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2013 Nov;22(11):1931-43.
• Bosetti C, Bravi F, Negri E, La Vecchia C. Oral contraceptives and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update. 2009 Sep-Oct;15(5):489-98.

Hormone Replacement Therapy

• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100A. A review of human carcinogens. Part A: Pharmaceuticals 167. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. Report No.: 100.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Family history

• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.
• Lindor NM, McMaster ML, Lindor CJ, Greene MH. Concise handbook of familial cancer susceptibility syndromes - second edition 20. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 2008;(38):1-93.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease

• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.
• Jess T, Gamborg M, Matzen P, Munkholm P, Sorensen TI, Jess T, et al. Increased risk of intestinal cancer in Crohn’s disease: a meta-analysis of population-based cohort studies. Am J Gastroenterol 2005;100(12):2724-9.
• Canavan C, Abrams KR, Mayberry J, Canavan C, Abrams KR, Mayberry J. Meta-analysis: colorectal and small bowel cancer risk in patients with Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2006;23(8):1097-104.
• von Roon AC, Reese G, Teare J, Constantinides V, Darzi AW, Tekkis PP, et al. The risk of cancer in patients with Crohn’s disease. Dis Colon Rectum 2007;50(6):839-55.
• Jess T, Rungoe C, Peyrin-Biroulet L. Risk of colorectal cancer in patients with ulcerative colitis: a meta-analysis of population-based cohort studies. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012;10(6):639-45.

Height

• World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. [Internet]. AICR. 2011. [Updated 2011; cited 2015 Feb 18].
• World Cancer Research Fund/ American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Screening (FOBT, Colonoscopy, Flexible Sigmoidoscopy)

• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.
• Cotterchio M, Manno M, Klar N, McLaughlin J, Gallinger S. Colorectal screening is associated with reduced cancer risk: a case-control study within the population-based Ontario Familial Colorectal Cancer Registry. Cancer Causes Control 2005 Sep;16(7):865–75.
• Brenner H, Stock C, Hoffmeister M. Effect of screening sigmoidoscopy and screening colonoscopy on colorectal cancer incidence and mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials and observational studies. BMJ. 2014 Apr 9;348:g2467.
• Hewitson P, Glasziou P, Watson E, Towler B, Irwig L. Cochrane systematic review of colorectal cancer screening using the fecal occult blood test (Hemoccult): an update. Am J Gastroenterol. 2008 Jun;103(6):1541–9.

Family history

• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Body weight/body fatness

• World Cancer Research Fund/ American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007.
• Wang F, Xu Y. Body mass index and risk of renal cell cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis of published cohort studies. Int J Cancer 2014 Oct 1;135(7):1673-86.
• Wolin KY, Carson K, Colditz GA, Wolin KY, Carson K, Colditz GA. Obesity and cancer. Oncologist 2010;15(6):556-65.

High blood pressure

• Chow W-H, Dong LM, Devesa SS. Epidemiology and risk factors for kidney cancer. Nat Rev Urol 2010;7:245–257.
• Corrao G, Scotti L, Bagnardi V, Sega R. Hypertension, antihypertensive therapy and renal-cell cancer: a meta-analysis. Curr Drug Saf 2007;2:125-33.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Smoking

• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100E. A review of human carcinogens. Part E: Personal habits and indoor combustions. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.
• Gandini S, Botteri E, Iodice S, Boniol M, Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P, Boyle P. Tobacco smoking and cancer: a meta-analysis. International Journal of Cancer. 2008;122:155-164.

Family history

• Lindor NM, McMaster ML, Lindor CJ, Greene MH. Concise handbook of familial cancer susceptibility syndromes - second edition. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 2008;(38):1-93.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Smoking

• Gandini S, Botteri E, Iodice S, Boniol M, Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P, et al. Tobacco smoking and cancer: a meta-analysis. Int J Cancer 2008;122(1):155-64.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100E. A review of human carcinogens. Part E: Personal habits and indoor combustions. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.
• Bosetti C, Gallus S, Peto R, Negri E, Talamini R, Tavani A, et al. Tobacco smoking, smoking cessation, and cumulative risk of upper aerodigestive tract cancers. Am J Epidemiol 2008 Feb 15;167(4):468-73.

Second-hand smoke

• Taylor R, Najafi F, Dobson A. Meta-analysis of studies of passive smoking and lung cancer: effects of study type and continent. Int J Epidemiol 2007;36(5):1048-59.
• Stayner L, Bena J, Sasco AJ, Smith R, Steenland K, Kreuzer M, et al. Lung cancer risk and workplace exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. Am J Public Health 2007;97(3):545-51.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100E. A review of human carcinogens. Part E: Personal habits and indoor combustions. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 83. Tobacco smoke and involuntary smoking. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2004.

Cigars

• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 83. Tobacco smoke and involuntary smoking. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2004.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100E. A review of human carcinogens. Part E: Personal habits and indoor combustions. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.

Fruit and vegetables

• World Cancer Research Fund/ American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007.

City (pollution)

• Loomis D, Grosse Y, Lauby-Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Benbrahim-Tallaa L et al. The carcinogenicity of outdoor air pollution. Lancet Oncol 2013;14(13):1262–3.
• Turner MC, Krewski D, Pope CA3, Chen Y, Gapstur SM, Thun MJ. Long-term ambient fine particulate matter air pollution and lung cancer in a large cohort of never-smokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;184(12):1374-81.
• Chen H, Goldberg MS, Villeneuve PJ. A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases. Rev Environ Health 2008;23(4):243-97.
• Boffetta P, Nyberg F. Contribution of environmental factors to cancer risk. Br Med Bull 2003;68:71-94.

Asbestos

• Lenters V, Vermeulen R, Dogger S, Stayner L, Portengen L, Burdorf A, et al. A meta-analysis of asbestos and lung cancer: Is better quality exposure assessment associated with steeper slopes of the exposure–response relationships? Environ Health Perspect 2011;119(11):1547-55.
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100C. A review of human carcinogens. Part C: Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. Lyon: International Agency for research on Cancer; 2012.

Chemical exposure history

• Diesel engine exhaust

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 105. Diesel and gasoline engine exhaust and some nitroarenes. Lyon: International Agency for research on Cancer; 2013.
  • Vermeulen R, Silverman DT, Garshick E, Portengen L, Steenland K. Exposure–response estimates for diesel engine exhaust and lung cancer mortality based on data from three occupational cohorts. Environ Health Perspect 2014 Feb;122(2):172–77.
  • Olsson AC, Gustavsson P, Kromhout H, Peters S, Vermeulen R, Bruske I, et al. Exposure to diesel motor exhaust and lung cancer risk in a pooled analysis from case-control studies in Europe and Canada. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183(7):941-8.

• Silica dust, crystalline silica

  • Pelucchi C, Pira E, Piolatto G, et al. Occupational silica exposure and lung cancer risk: a review of epidemiological studies 1996–2005. Ann Oncol 2006;17(7):1039-50.
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100C. A review of human carcinogens. Part C: Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. Lyon: International Agency for research on Cancer; 2012.

• Nickel compounds

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100C. A review of human carcinogens. Part C: Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. Lyon: International Agency for research on Cancer; 2012.

• Chromium (VI) compounds

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100C. A review of human carcinogens. Part C: Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. Lyon: International Agency for research on Cancer; 2012.
  • Cole P, Rodu B. Epidemiologic studies of chrome and cancer mortality: a series of meta-analyses. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2005;43(3):225-31.

• Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100C. A review of human carcinogens. Part C: Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. Lyon: International Agency for research on Cancer; 2012.

• X-ray and gamma-radiation

  • United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Effects of Ionizing Radiation. Volume 1: Report to the General Assembly, Annex A: Epidemiological Studies of Radiation and Cancer. New York: United Nations; 2006.
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100D. A review of human carcinogens. Part D: Radiation. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012.
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 75. Ionizing radiation, part 1: X- and gamma-radiation, and neutrons. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2000.
  • Cardis E, Vrijheid M, Blettner M, Gilbert E, Hakama M, Hill C, et al. The 15-Country Collaborative Study of Cancer Risk among Radiation Workers in the Nuclear Industry: estimates of radiation-related cancer risks. Radiat Res 2007;167(4):396-416.
  • Sont WN, Zielinski JM, Ashmore JP, Jiang H, Krewski D, Fair ME, et al. First analysis of cancer incidence and occupational radiation exposure based on the National Dose Registry of Canada. Am J Epidemiol 2001;153(4):309-18.

• Cadmium and cadmium compounds

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100C. A review of human carcinogens. Part C: Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. Lyon: International Agency for research on Cancer; 2012.
  • Stayner L, Smith R, Thun M, Schnorr T, Lemen R. A dose-response analysis and quantitative assessment of lung cancer risk and occupational cadmium exposure. Ann Epidemiol 1992;2(3):177-94.

• Beryllium and beryllium compounds

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100C. A review of human carcinogens. Part C: Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. Lyon: International Agency for research on Cancer; 2012.
  • Sanderson WT, Ward EM, Steenland K, Petersen MR. Lung cancer case-control study of beryllium workers. Am J Ind Med 2001;39(2):133-44.

• Radon

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: Man-made Minerals Fibres and Radon, Vol 43. Lyon, France: IARC; 1988.
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 75. Ionizing radiation, part 1: X- and gamma-radiation, and neutrons. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2000.
  • Lubin JH, Boice JD, Jr., Edling C, Hornung RW, Howe GR, Kunz E, et al. Lung cancer in radon-exposed miners and estimation of risk from indoor exposure. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87(11):817-27.

Other exposures

• Painting

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100F. A review of human carcinogens. Part F: Chemical agents and related occupations 59. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. Report No.: 100F.

• Aluminum smelting

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100F. A review of human carcinogens. Part F: Chemical agents and related occupations 59. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. Report No.: 100F.

• Iron or steel founding

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100F. A review of human carcinogens. Part F: Chemical agents and related occupations 59. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. Report No.: 100F.

• Rubber manufacturing

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100F. A review of human carcinogens. Part F: Chemical agents and related occupations 59. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. Report No.: 100F.

• Coke ovens

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100F. A review of human carcinogens. Part F: Chemical agents and related occupations 59. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. Report No.: 100F.

• Coal gasification

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 100F. A review of human carcinogens. Part F: Chemical agents and related occupations 59. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. Report No.: 100F.

Family history

• Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS, Pasquini P, Zanetti R, Masini C, et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: III. Family history, actinic damage and phenotypic factors. Eur J Cancer 2005 Sep;41(14):2040-59.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Hair colour, eye colour, skin type

• Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS, Pasquini P, Zanetti R, Masini C, et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: III. Family history, actinic damage and phenotypic factors. Eur J Cancer 2005 Sep;41(14):2040-59.
• Armstrong BK, Kricker A. The epidemiology of UV induced skin cancer. J Photochem Photobiol B 2001 Oct;63(1-3):8-18.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.

Moles (nevi)

• Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS, Pasquini P, Albeni D, Boyle P, et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma:I. Common and atypical naevi. Eur J Cancer 2005 Sep;41(1):28-44.
• Chang YM, Newton-Bishop JA, Bishop DT, Armstrong BK, Bataille V, Bergman W, et al. A pooled analysis of melanocytic nevus phenotype and the risk of cutaneous melanoma at different latitudes. Int J Cancer 2009;124(2):420-8.

Sunburns

• Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS, Pasquini P, Picconi O, Boyle P, et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: II. Sun exposure. Eur J Cancer 2005 Jan;41(1):45-60.
• Chang YM, Barrett JH, Bishop DT, Armstrong BK, Bataille V, Bergman W, et al. Sun exposure and melanoma risk at different latitudes: a pooled analysis of 5700 cases and 7216 controls. Int J Epidemiol 2009 Jun;38(3):814-30.

Immunosuppression and immunosuppressive therapy

• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.
• IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. A review of human carcinogens. Part D: Radiation. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2009. Report No.: 100.

Tanning equipment, lamps, and beds

• The International Agency for Research on Cancer Working Group on artificial ultraviolet (UV) light and skin cancer. The association of use of sunbeds with cutaneous malignant melanoma and other skin cancers: A systematic review. Int J Cancer 2007 Mar 1;120(5):1116-22.
• Cust AE, Armstrong BK, Goumas C, Jenkins MA, Schmid H, Hopper JL, et al. Sunbed use during adolescence and early adulthood is associated with increased risk of early-onset melanoma. Int J Cancer 2011 May 15;128(10):2425-35.

Sun exposure

• Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS, Pasquini P, Picconi O, Boyle P, et al. Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: II. Sun exposure. Eur J Cancer 2005 Jan;41(1):45-60.
• Armstrong BK, Kricker A. The epidemiology of UV induced skin cancer. J Photochem Photobiol B 2001 Oct;63(1-3):8-18.
• Schottenfeld D and Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006.